Typology of Common Mistakes in L2
According to linguists such as Mclaughlin (1987) errors can either be linked to intra-lingual, namely developmental, factors, inter-lingual factors, namely influences from L1, or both. Ellis (1997) adds to this by expressing the opinion that the learner’s comprehension of grammar is transitional. According to Ellis the learner goes through a continuous procedure of updating her understanding of the grammar system of an L2. The learner often approaches L2 grammar as a rule-based system. In the context of learning the learner may add or delete rules; she may also completely overhaul her understanding of how the entire system works. Significant research has been conducted on the understanding and classification of the most common types of errors that are committed in an L2 acquisition. English is the language that is mostly studied in relation to common L2 errors committed by learners. This is probably due to its popularity. Following is a summary of the main types of errors committed by learners and possibly causes:
- Transfer errors related to morphological and grammatical elements: transfer errors are a result of L1 interference. The learner applies knowledge related to the mother tongue while building communication skills in L2. As stated above in the CAH error analysis discussion, this type of error is a result of differences between the grammar systems of L1 and L2
- Errors of misinformation: errors of misinformation are a common feature mostly in written texts. Ellis (1997) states that this type of errors occur when a learner lacks knowledge of the appropriate language forms. Unlike transfer errors which can be explained through the CAH theory errors of misinformation are usually explained through EAH; the latter explains misinformation errors as a result of knowledge gaps related to the target language and not merely a consequence of L1 interference or transference. According to Hedge (2000) errors of misinformation may be caused by inadequate teacher competence in L2 communication or instruction, which is transferred to the learner. Another cause may be inadequacy of learning material (Brown 2007). Examples of such errors include the confusion on the use of homophones such as “there”, “their”, and “they” or “were” and “where”, or even “whether” and “weather”. Errors of misinformation may occur in relation to vocabulary consistency, to the use of articles, to the use of words which appear to have the same meaning but are applied in different contexts, e.g. “avoid” and “prevent” only to mention a few. A study conducted by Alhaysony (2012) regarding the Saudi female EFL students also showed that the use of articles is really a problem since students do not know where and when to use “a” and “the”. Another notable error of misinformation is that of incomplete sentences. Students who make this error seem not to be aware of the fact that subordinate clauses are dependent and cannot stand alone as complete statements
- Errors of over-generalization: according to Ellis (1997) a learner can over generalize some aspects of an L2. This practically means that the learner after having achieved a basic understanding of grammar rules may over apply some in unforeseen situations. An example is the over use of plural “s” even in the case irregularity. A common instance of such a mistake is using “womans” as a plural of “woman” instead of the correct “women”; similarly using “childrens” as a plural for “child” instead of the correct” children”. A similar error that occurs as result of over-generalization is the application of the past tense form (-ed) to irregular verbs. A common instance is using “losed” or “losted” as the past tense of “loose” instead of the correct “lost”; similarly using “buyed” as the past tense of “buy” instead of the correct “bought”
- Errors of disordering: disordering of elements in a statement can be manifested, for example, in the use of a personal pronoun such as the first person “I” which is supposed to come last when accompanied by other nouns before a verb. An instance of this mistake is using the expression “I and you” instead of the correct “you and I”
- Errors of pronunciation and transfer of phonological elements: every language has its own specific and maybe unique phonological features which may not be available in another language. Alternatively, even if such elements do exist they may take new characteristics which again make them distinctive features of another language
- Errors of punctuation
- Errors of informal language use and transfer of stylistic and cultural elements: in some cases, a sentence that appears to be correct and culturally acceptable in a specific language may not be viewed as such in a different context. Lado (1957) claims that ”a very interesting kind of trouble spot is seen when any element of the form of a complex pattern has different classification or meaning across cultures”. This type of error is clearly related to the transfer of native culture habits and practices to a foreign culture in the context of language use. Keshavarz (1994) argued that in Persian, unlike English, titles such as “Mr.” and “Mrs.” can be followed by professional titles while the same doesn’t apply for English.
The list is long and researchers further focus on why ESL learners commit such common errors. In addition to being a result of interlanguage transfers, Brown further regards learners’ errors as an indication of the transition from the beginning stages of learning to more complex ones (Brown, 2007). Brown also puts the responsibility on drilling exercises that promote memorization rather that contextualization of grammar concepts. Brown (2007) insists on the inevitability of errors as a natural part of learning process. He believes that errors can be used in the context of critical pedagogical feedback towards ESL learners by their teachers despite the negative connotations of the word “error‟ itself.
Meanwhile, Corder (1981) distinguishes “mistakes” from “errors” based on the assumption that the first refer to “unsystematic errors” while the latter implies “systematic errors of learners from which we are able to reconstruct their knowledge of the language to date ”. On the other hand, Brown (2007) provides a clearer view on distinguishing errors and mistakes. He states that even though the two terms are used in daily conversation they are actually quite different; Brown argues that the key to differentiate between mistakes and errors is the fact that mistakes can be self-corrected when addressed.
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References
Alhaysony, M. (2012) “An Analysis of Article Errors among Saudi Female EFL Students: A case study”, Asian Journal of Social Science 8 (12).
Brown, H.D. (2007). Principles of language learning and teaching. Fifth Edition. Pearson-Longman.
Corder, S.P. (1981). Error Analysis and Interlanguage. Oxford. Oxford University Press.
Ellis, R. (1997). The empirical evaluation of language teaching materials English Language Teaching Journa1, 51( 1) 36-42.
Hedge, H. T. (2000) Teaching and Learning in the Language Classroom. Oxford University Press: Oxford.
Lado, R. (1957), Linguistics Across Cultures. Applied Linguistics for Language Teachers. University of Michigan Press: Ann Arbor.
