Qualitative research models

There are many approaches to research design although the term “design” in itself, is usually linked to the concept of fixed arrangements of research conditions and methods that function under certain logic which in the end might lead to the out-come that answers the initial questions (Campbell & Stanley, 1967). According to other approaches design is considered to be a set of stages and tasks that follow a certain progress route, from the formulation of the research questions to the theo-retic outcome and conclusions that are fundamental for carrying out a study (Mar-shall & Rossman, 1999). However, Hammersley & Atkinson (1995) argue that the aforementioned approaches usually imply a quantitative study framework whereas research design in a qualitative study “should be a reflexive process operating through every stage of a project”. They also consider the activities taking place in research process such as collecting and analyzing data, elaborating or refocusing the initial questions, coming to terms with validity issues, almost simultaneous and mutually influencing research stages. Grady & Walston (1988) and Yin (1994) seem to agree with this since they see insist that qualitative research doesn’t lack serious design, as it might be implied, but it needs a broader and less clinical and restrictive concept of design with regard to the more traditional quantitative methods.

When it comes to choose the right research approach within a qualitative frame-work, there are several choices mainly depending on the conceptual model of the study that lies in the topic, the purpose, and its significance. In the academic social sciences the approaches that are most frequently used include the following:

• Generic/Pragmatic qualitative research. Caelli et al (2003) describe it as a study that “seeks to discover and understand a phenomenon, a process, or the perspectives and worldviews of the people involved”. They argue that any researcher that uses a generic approach should make his/her theo-retical position explicit right from the beginning. Motivation for the study, congruence between methodology and methods, and strategies that estab-lish validity should be sufficiently described in order for the methods to be distinct from ethnographic observation:

• Ethnographic research. It is the study of social interactions, behaviors, cultures and perceptions that occur within groups and communities. Its roots can be found in anthropology according to which, the researcher has to closely observe and register episodes, facts and notions that come from the daily life of another culture in which he has to be involved. The main aim is to provide rich and holistic insights regarding people’s views and actions, as well as the nature of the environment in which they live and act, through the collection of detailed observations and interviews in order for a theory to be developed or reinvented. Ethnographers make use of a variety of informal and formal data sources but the main methods of col-lection can be traced in Participant observation which can be either Partic-ipant or Non-Participant, Interviews with open ended questions that allow the subject’s freedom of expression and Artifacts such as documents, ob-jects, digital data and so forth.

• Grounded theory is a general research method not attributed to one spe-cific school of thought or discipline. It was originally developed by Glaser and Strauss (1967) who worked on the interactions between health care professionals and dying patients. Its central aim is to generate theories re-garding social phenomena and to present a systematic analysis of data in which higher level of understanding of these phenomena is “grounded”. With this model of research testing or verification of an existing theory is not what is expected; instead, the real aim is to explain a process through the study of social interactions and experiences. Key features of grounded theory are its repetitive study design, purposive sampling, and system of analysis. An iterative study design involves different cycles of simultane-ous data collection and analysis which serves as the basis to the next cycle of data collection. The key principle of data analysis in grounded theory research is constant comparison. Issues of interest are hidden in the data. They are systematically examined in comparison with other data for similarities and differences. Through this process the emerging theoretical outcome is constantly refined through comparisons with “up to date” examples from data collection. Due to this aspect grounded theory analysis owes its richness and uniqueness. According to Glasser (1978), data analysis can be implemented through the use of a variety of data sources such as quantitative data, records’ review, interviews, observation, and questionnaires.

• Phenomenography is a form of research in which the researcher tries to perceive how one or more individuals experience a specific phenomenon. Thus it focuses on the "subjective reality" of an event as this experienced by the study population (Marton & Booth, 1997). Phenomenography shouldn’t be confused with phenomenology although they both have hu-man experience as their object. Phenomenology is a philosophical method in which the philosopher engages in investigating her own experience. Phenomenography as an approach to educational research appeared in the early 1980’s. Initially it had an empirical rather than theoretical basis. Its main goal is to describe experiences as they are lived by each subject in their unique way. Usually, the method of research isn’t clearly defined form the beginning. This choice is mainly rooted in the intention of the re-searcher to avoid limiting her creativity. As for the sampling procedure, the researcher seeks persons who are willing to express inner feelings and experiences and the main purpose is to collect data through direct observation of people’s attitudes and description of their experiences of a specific phenomenon. Typically, data comes from close interviews with a small, purposeful sample which is audio or video taped. After thorough classifi-cation and ranking the material is examined with a clear sense of whole-ness (Marton & Booth, 1997)

• Case study is a descriptive, exploratory, or explanatory analysis of a per-son, group, or event. Another suggestion is that it could be better defined as an empirical research strategy that investigates a phenomenon within its real-life context. As a research methodology it is ideal when a holistic, in-depth investigation is needed (Feagin, Orum & Sjoberg, 1991). Although case studies have been widely used in varied investigations, particularly in social and life sciences, they seem to get more and more use in educational sciences too. Yin (1993) has identified three specific types of case studies and these are the exploratory, explanatory, and descriptive; Stake (1995) adds three more: the intrinsic, in which the researcher has an interest in the case, the instrumental, in which the case is used to understand more than what is obvious, and the collective, in which a group of cases is studied. Case study research is not sampling research but it can be either prospec-tive or retrospective depending on the moment of selection of the exact cases to be studied. Typically, case studies tend to be selective since they

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