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Adult learners have characteristics and needs that set them apart from school pupils. More precisely, school learners participate in learning having very general goals; for example to be educated or to succeed in university entrance processes. They may also participate simply because they are obliged to do so. This does not apply to adults, who take part in adult learning having very specific needs and interests (see section 9.1.1 Field summary results generated by adult learners). The underlying reasons for participation in adult learning vary and are dependent on the different stages of the adult learner’s life; the purposes which often trigger motivational mechanisms towards adult learning can be categorised as: professional, personal, social, affiliation, and prestige-related.

Naturally, adult learners’ motivation for undertaking lifelong learning may include several of the above listed reasons. A combination of needs and purposes may lay behind their decision to participate in adult learning. However, exceptional cases exist where adult learners have not yet clear objectives or have not fully alleviated the reasons for which they enter an adult learning program. Other external reasons might have triggered mechanisms for participation; for example, employer demands, short-term financial benefits related to the attendance of a particular course, and more. Apart from these exceptional cases, in general adults are goal-oriented and know what they would like to achieve as was also perceived from the study that conducted in the context of siLang (see section 9.1.1). Adult learners have specific requirements and have a need to identify specific benefits linked to learning tasks that they undertake. This fact is also exemplified by the siLang learning requirements study which brought into focus the fact that there is need to set clear learning objectives. Coupled with this, adult learners enjoy having their ideas and suggestions regarding the educational plan taken into account and applied in the teaching situation.
Adults’ needs can be described as concrete and immediate. Adult learners are rarely willing to participate in long theoretical discussions; they are more likely to demonstrate interest in theory when this is combined with practice. Furthermore, interest is exemplified when practice in closely related to real-life situations and problems and can be applied to address specific objectives whether these are professional or personal. As Karastathi (2013) states: ‘they do not care so much for future application of knowledge but rather they want to see immediate applications’. The need of adults for immediate and direct applicability of skills built through learning was also brought into focus by the siLang study that targeted adult learners and language trainers (see Figure 26 and Figure 27).
Coupled with this, adults have accumulated life experiences. Their spectrum of experiences is diverse. They tend to favour practical learning activities that enable them to draw on their prior experiences and knowledge. Previous knowledge is the starting point for the acquisition of new knowledge and skills.
An interesting characteristic of adult learners is that they have already adopted specific learning styles and preferences in educational delivery processes. Honey and Manfold (1989, cited in Kokkos n.d, p. 91) brought into focus commonly perceived comments by adult learners that indicate four different learning attitudes and styles. It is important to take into consideration the way adult learners learn better but also to gently build upon their preferences and to suggest additional learning pathways.

Active participation through discussion, feedback, elaboration of thinking, and sharing of experiences can lead to meaningful adult learning. Lecturing and passive listening are not in line with the adult learners’ needs and may cause frustration. Adults enjoy taking active roles and being treated as mature individuals that can contribute with their experiences in the learning process. Regarding educational resources, adult learners need content adapted to their interests and written or composed in a clear, concise, and coherent way. In general, this ‘picture’ of the practical, goal-oriented, self-directed learner is representative of adults independently of the subject that the adult is undertaking. The discussion on learning needs can be elaborated in the context of foreign language acquisition. What needs do the adult learners have when they are exposed to foreign language.

learning instruction? The term ‘needs’ should be further analyzed under this perspective. While specific needs motivate adult learners to initiate participation in learning programs additional needs may emerge during the course of participation in an educational offering. These can be categorized in capacity-related needs, namely the force dynamics towards participation, and functional or operational needs that directly influence the level of achievement of educational goals. Although different groups of adult learners have different language needs, the ability to communicate effectively using a vehicular language is a need in common. Capacity-related needs include: the ability for professional cross-border collaboration, development of basic language competence, understanding others when they speak, understanding overall meaning of written texts, familiarization with different communicative norms, and effective communication in international settings and different cultural contexts (see also section 9.1.1 Field summary results generated by adult learners). Regarding functional/operational needs, as mentioned above, adult learners need adult-appropriate content, educational resources, and learning tasks that are in line with their needs and interests and allow them to build upon existing knowledge and experiences. Content and resources should be linguistically and culturally sensitive and focus on specific needs and interests of adult learners. Audio-visual material also helps engagement in tasks related to the rules and norms of a foreign language. Access to digital communities offers opportunities and mechanisms for learning a foreign language through the exposure to authentic context. Regarding learning styles, adult learners’ exposure to language learning may be more effective through learning processes that are based on discussion, role playing, brainstorming, case studies, simulations, problem-based tasks, educational visits, and other learning pathways that allows them to take an active role.

Last, there is a lot of discussion regarding the use of new technologies in adult learning classrooms or programs. The use of emerging technologies can potentially bring added value in the adult learning classrooms and can enhance adult learners’ digital skills and knowledge. The technology employed should be carefully considered to ensure that indeed it brings value to the class. Additional needs of adult learners include: on the one hand they need to develop digital skills which might be useful in the workplace towards becoming digitally literate or towards updating existing digital skills and knowledge; on the other hand, adults are in most of the cases early-adopters of ICT tools, commonly known as ‘digital immigrants’, and apparently need special guidance in using ICT tools including, for example, offline software applications, online platforms and applications, social networks, serious games, simulations, and virtual worlds. Guidance should be provided in the form of precise guidelines embedded in the ICT tool, user guides with concise and clear instructions, good practice video guidelines, and detailed learning activities. The following table summarizes adult learners’ needs and requirements in relation to technologies employed for training. The needs fall into two categories: functional/operational needs and capacity-related needs.